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An
invasion is a military action consisting of
armed forces of one
geopolitics entity entering
territory (country subdivision) controlled by another such
entity, generally with the objective of either conquering territory, altering the established government, or a combination thereof. An invasion can be the cause of a
war, it can be used as a part of a larger strategy to end a war, or it can constitute an entire war in itself.
The term usually denotes a military strategy
endeavor of substantial magnitude; because the goals of an invasion are usually large-scale and long-term, a sizeable force is needed to hold territory, and protect the interests of the invading entity. Smaller-scale, military tactics cross-border actions, such as skirmisher,
sorties,
raid (military), infiltrations or
guerrilla warfare, are not generally considered invasions. Because an invasion is, by definition, an attack from outside forces,
rebellions,
civil wars, coup d'état, and internal acts of
democide or other acts of
oppression, are not considered invasions.
History
Archaeology evidence indicates that invasions have been frequent occurrences since prehistory. In antiquity, before
radio communications and fast transportation, the only way to ensure adequate reinforcements was to move armies as one massive force. This, by its very nature, led to the strategy of invasion. With invasion came
cultural diffusion in government, religion, philosophy, and
technology that shaped the development of much of the
ancient world.
Defenses
. The
Great Wall of China near
BeijingStates with potentially hostile neighbors typically adopt defense (military) to delay or forestall an invasion. In addition to utilizing geographical barriers such as rivers, marshes, or rugged terrain, these measures have historically included
fortifications. Such a defense can be intended to actively prevent invading forces from entering the country by means of an extended and well-defended barrier; Hadrian's Wall, the Great Wall of China and the Danewerk are famous examples. Such barriers have also included
trench warfare lines and, in more modern times, minefields,
closed-circuit televisions, and motion detection sensors. However, these barriers can require a large military force to provide the defense, as well as maintain the equipment and positions, which can impose a great
economics burden on the country. Some of those same techniques can also be turned against defenders, used to keep them from escape or resupply. During Operation Starvation,
Allies of World War II used airdropped mines to severely disrupt Empire of Japan logistical operations within their own borders.
Alternately, the fortifications can be built up at a series of sites, such as
castles or forts placed near a border. These structures are designed to delay an invasion long enough for the defending nation to mobilize an army of size sufficient for defense or, in some cases, counter-invasion—such as, for example, the
Maginot Line. Forts can be positioned so that the
garrisons can interdict the supply lines of the invaders. The theory behind these spaced forts is that the invader cannot afford to bypass these defenses, and so must lay siege to the structures.
; notice the retractable turret in the left foreground.
In modern times, the notion of constructing large-scale static defenses to combat land-based threats has largely become obsolete. The use of precision air campaigns and large-scale
mechanized warfare have made lighter, more mobile defenses desirable to military planners. The obsolescence of large fortifications was displayed by the failure of the
Maginot Line in the beginning of World War Two. Nations defending against modern invasions normally use large population centers such as
city or towns as defensive points. The invader must capture these points to destroy the defender's ability to wage war. The defender uses mobile
armoured warfare and
infantry divisions to protect these points, but the defenders are still very mobile and can normally retreat. A prominent example of the use of cities as fortifications can be seen in the
Military of Iraq's stands in the 2003 invasion of Iraq at Baghdad,
Tikrit and
Basra in the major combat in the Iraq War. A defender can also use these mobile assets to precipitate a counteroffensive like the Soviet Union Red Army at the
Battle of Kursk or the Afghan Northern Alliance in
Afghanistan.
However, static emplacements remain useful in both defense against naval attacks and anti-aircraft warfare.
Naval mines are still an inexpensive but effective way to defend
ports and choke off supply lines. Large static air defense systems that combine antiaircraft guns with
rocket launcher are still the best way to defend against air attacks. Such systems were used effectively by the
North Vietnamese around Hanoi. Also, the
United States has invested considerable time and money into the construction of a National Missile Defense system, a static defense grid intended to intercept nuclear
intercontinental ballistic missiles.
Island nations, such as the
United Kingdom or Japan, and continental states with extensive coasts, such as the United States, have utilized a significant
navy presence to forestall an invasion of their country, rather than fortifying their border areas. A successful naval defense, however, usually requires a preponderance of naval power and the ability to sustain and service that defense force.
In particularly large nations, the defending force may also withdrawal (military) in order to facilitate a
counterattack by drawing the invaders deeper into hostile territory. One effect of this tactic is that the invading force becomes too spread out, making supply difficult and making the lines more susceptible to attack. This tactic, although costly, helped the Soviets stop the German advance at
Battle of Stalingrad. It can also cause the invading force to extend too far, allowing a
pincer movement to cut them off from reinforcements. This was the cause of the British defeat at the Battle of Cowpens during the American Revolutionary War. Finally, sending too many reinforcements can leave too few defenders in the attackers' territory, allowing a counter-invasion from other areas, as happened in the Second Punic War.
Methods
There are many different methods by which an invasion can take place, each method having arguments both in their favor and against. These include invasion by land, sea, or air, or any combination of these methods.
Invasion by land
Invasion over land is the straightforward entry of
armed forces into an area using existing land connections, usually crossing borders or otherwise defined zones, such as a demilitarized zone, overwhelming defensive emplacements and structures. Although this tactic often results in a quick victory, troop movements are relatively slow and subject to disruption by terrain and weather. Furthermore, it is hard to conceal plans for this method of invasion, as most geopolitical entities take defensive positions in areas that are most vulnerable to the methods mentioned above.
In modern warfare, invasion by land often takes place after, or sometimes during, attacks on the target by other means. Air strikes and
cruise missiles launched from ships at sea are a common method of "softening" the target. Other, more subtle, preparations may involve secretly garnering popular support,
assassination potentially threatening political or military figures, and closing off supply lines where they cross into neighboring countries. In some cases, those other means of attack eliminate the need for ground assault; the 1945 atomic-bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ultimately made it unnecessary for the Allies to invade the Japanese home islands with infantry troops. In cases such as this, while some ground troops are still needed to occupy the conquered territory, they are allowed to enter under the terms of a
treaty and as such are no longer invaders. As unmanned, long-range combat evolves, the instances of basic overland invasion become fewer; often the conventional fighting is effectively over before the infantry arrives in the role of peacekeepers (see "Invasion#Applications in fourth generation warfare" in this article).
Invasion by sea
carrying LAV 25 ashore during the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Invasion by sea is the use of a body of water to facilitate the entry of armed forces into an area, often a landmass adjoining the body of water or an island. This is generally used either in conjunction with another method of invasion, and especially before the
aviation history, for cases in which there is no other method to enter the territory in question. Arguments in favor of this method usually consist of the ability to perform a surprise attack from sea, or that naval defenses of the area in question are inadequate to repel such an attack. However, the large amount of specialized equipment, such as
amphibious vehicles and the difficulty of establishing defenses—usually with a resulting high
casualty (person)—in exchange for a relatively small gain, are often used as arguments against such an invasion method. Underwater hazards and a lack of good cover are very common problems during invasions from the sea. At the Battle of Tarawa, United States Marine Corps landing craft became hung up on a coral reef and were
shell (projectile) from the beach. Other landers were sunk before they could reach the shore, and the
tanks they were carrying were stranded in the water. Most of the few survivors of the first wave ended up pinned down on the beach. The island was conquered but at a heavy cost, and the loss of life sparked mass protests from civilians in the United States.
Invasion by air
s descend during
Operation Market GardenInvasion by air is an invention of the 20th century and modern warfare. The idea involves sending military units into a territory by
aircraft. The aircraft either land, allowing the military units to debark and attempt their objective, or the troops exit the aircraft while still in the air, using
parachutes or similar devices to land in the territory being invaded. Many times air assaults have been used to pave the way for a ground- or sea-based invasion, by taking key positions deep behind enemy lines such as bridges and crossroads, but an entirely air-based invasion has never succeeded. Two immediate problems are resupply and reinforcement. A large airborne force cannot be adequately supplied without meeting up with ground forces; an airborne force too small simply places themselves into an immediate envelopment situation. Arguments in favor of this method generally relate to the ability to target specific areas that may not necessarily be easily accessible by land or sea, a greater chance of surprising the enemy and overwhelming defensive structures, and, in many cases, the need for a reduced number of forces due to the element of surprise. Arguments against this method typically involve capacity to perform such an invasion—such as the sheer number of planes that would be needed to carry a sufficient number of troops—and the need for a high level of
espionage in order for the invasion to be successful.
The closest examples to a true air invasion are the
Battle of Crete,
Chindits#Operation Thursday (the
Chindits second operation during the Burma Campaign) and Operation Market Garden. The latter was an assault on the German-occupied Netherlands conducted in September of 1944. Nearly 35,000 men were dropped by parachute and
glider into enemy territory in an attempt to capture bridges from the Germans and make way for the Allies' advance. However, even with such a massive force taking the Germans completely by surprise, the assault was a tactical failure and after 9 days of fighting the Allies managed only to escape back to their own lines, having sustained over 18,000 casualties. In the 21st century, as vast improvements are made in anti-aircraft defenses, it seems that the air invasion is a strategy whose time may never come.
Pacification
Once political boundaries and military lines have been breached, peace of the region is the final, and arguably the most important, goal of the invading force. After the defeat of the regular military, or when one is lacking, continued opposition to an invasion often comes from civilian or paramilitary
resistance movements. Complete pacification of an occupied country can be difficult, and usually impossible, but popular support is vital to the success of any invasion.
Media
propaganda such as leaflets, books, and radio broadcasts can be used to encourage resistance fighters to surrender and to dissuade others from joining their cause. Pacification, often referred to as "the winning of hearts and minds", reduces the desire for civilians to take up resistance. This may be accomplished through
brainwashing, allowing conquered citizens to participate in their government, or, especially in impoverished or besieged areas, simply by providing food, water, and shelter. Sometimes displays of military might are used; invading forces may assemble and parade through the streets of conquered towns, attempting to demonstrate the futility of any further fighting. These displays may also include public
capital punishment of enemy soldiers, resistance fighters, and other conspirators. Particularly in antiquity, the death or imprisonment of a popular leader was sometimes enough to bring about a quick surrender. However, this has often had the unintended effect of creating martyrs around which popular resistance can rally. An example of which was Sir
William Wallace, who, centuries after his execution by the English, is still a symbol of
Scotland nationalism.
Many factors need to be taken into account when deciding which tactics to use during occupation; when the wrong decisions are made, it can lead to years (or even centuries) of continued resistance. The problems caused by continued resistance may be minimal if the conquered territory is only needed for a short-term tactical purpose, but can become extremely difficult if the intent is to colonisation the area or hold the land indefinitely.
Support
Logistics
Without a steady flow of supplies, an invading force will soon find itself retreating. Before his invasion of
Ancient Greece,
Xerxes I of Persia spent three years amassing supplies from all over Asia;
Herodotus wrote that the Persian Empire army was so large it "drank the rivers dry".
In most invasions, even in modern times, many fresh supplies are gathered from the invaded territories themselves. Before the
laws of war, invaders often relied heavily on the supplies they would win by conquering towns along the way. During the Second Punic War, for example, Hannibal Barca diverted his army to conquer cities simply to gather supplies; his strategy in crossing the Alps necessitated traveling with as few provisions as possible, expecting the
Roman Republic stores to sustain them when they had breached the border. The scorched earth tactics used in Russia forced Napoleon I of France to withdraw his forces due to lack of food and shelter. Today, the
Law of land warfare forbids
looting and the confiscation of private property, but local supplies, particularly perishables, are still purchased when possible for use by occupying forces, and airplanes often use parachutes to drop supplies to besieged forces. Even as rules become stricter, the necessities of war become more numerous; in addition to food, shelter, and ammunition, today's militaries require fuel, batteries, spare mechanical parts, electronic equipment, and many other things. In the United States, the
Defense Logistics Agency employs over 22,000 civilians with the sole task of logistics support, and 30,000 soldiers graduate from the U.S. Army Logistics Management College each year.
Communication
Another consideration is the importance of leadership being able to communicate with the invasion force. In ancient times, this often meant that a king needed to lead his armies in person to be certain his commands were followed, as in the case of
Alexander the Great. At that time, the skills needed to lead troops in battle were as important as the skills needed to run a country during peacetime. When it was necessary for the king to be elsewhere, messengers would relay updates back to the rear, often on horseback or, in cases such as the Battle of Marathon, with swift runners.
When possible, sloops and
Cutter (ship)s were used to relay information by sea. The HMS Pickle brought Britain the first news that
Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson had defeated the French forces at the Battle of Trafalgar.
The development of
Morse Code, and later voice communications by radio and satellite, have allowed even small units of skirmishers to remain in contact with the larger invasion force, to verify orders or call for artillery support and air strikes. These communications were critical to the German blitzkrieg strategy, as infantry commanders relayed defensive positions to tanks and bombers.
Applications regarding non-state combatants
In the 20th and 21st centuries, questions arose regarding the effectiveness of the invasion strategy in neutralizing non-state combatants, a type of warfare sometimes referred to as "fourth generation warfare". In this case, one or more combatant groups are controlled not by a centralized state government but by independent leadership, and these groups may be made up of civilians, foreign agents,
mercenary, politicians, religious leaders, and members of the regular military. These groups act in smaller numbers, are not confined by borders, and do not necessarily depend on the direct support of the state. Groups such as these are not easily defeated by straightforward invasion, or even constant occupation; the country's regular army may be defeated, the government may be replaced, but asymmetric warfare on the part of these groups can be continued indefinitely. Because regular armed forces units do not have the flexibility and independence of small covert cells, many believe that the concept of a powerful occupying force actually creates a disadvantage.
An opposing theory holds that, in response to extremist ideology and unjust governments, an invasion can change the government and reeducate the people, making prolonged resistance unlikely and averting future violence. This theory acknowledges that these changes may take time—generations, in some cases—but holds that immediate benefits may still be won by reducing membership in, and choking the supply lines of, these covert cells. Proponents of the invasion strategy in such conflicts maintain the belief that a strong occupying force can still succeed in its goals on a tactical level, building upon numerous small victories, similar to a war of attrition.
Contemporary debate on this issue is still fresh; neither side can claim to know for certain which strategies will ultimately be effective in defeating non-state combatants. Opponents of the invasion strategy point to a lack of examples in which occupying or peacekeeping forces have met with conclusive success.Lind, William S., op. cit. They also cite continuing conflicts such as
The Troubles,
Al-Aqsa Intifada,
Second Chechen War, and
Casualties of the conflict in Iraq since 2003, as well as examples which they claim ultimately proved to be failures, such as
Multinational Force in Lebanon, and Soviet war in Afghanistan. Supporters of the invasion strategy hold that it is too soon to call those situations failures, and that patience is needed to see the plan through. Some say that the invasions themselves have, in fact, been successful, but that political opponents and the international media skew the facts for sensationalism or political gain.
Outcomes
The outcomes of an invasion may vary according to the objectives of both invaders and defenders, the success of the invasion and the defense, and the presence or absence of an agreed settlement between the warring parties. The most common outcome is the loss of territory, generally accompanied by a change in government and often the loss of direct control of that government by the losing faction. This sometimes results in the transformation of that country into a
client state, often accompanied by requirements to pay
war reparations or
tribute to the victor. In other cases the results of a successful invasion may simply be a return to the
status quo; this can be seen in attrition warfare, when the destruction of personnel and supplies is the main strategic objective, or where a nation previously subdued and currently occupied by an aggressive third party is restored to control of its own affairs (i.e. Western Europe following the Normandy landings in 1944, or Kuwait following the defeat of Iraq in 1991). In some cases, the invasion may be strategically limited to a geographical area, which is carved into a separate state as with the
Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
Record-setting invasions
Many records for invasions were set during
World War II, at the peak of second generation warfare and
third generation warfare. The vast numbers of the armies involved combined with innovative tactics and technology lent themselves to invasions on a scale that had not been seen before.
The largest land invasion in history was 1941's
Operation Barbarossa, in which 4,000,000
Nazi Germany troops blitzkrieged into the
Soviet Union. Initially the Germans advanced with great ease and nearly captured
Battle of Moscow, also laying siege to Battle of Leningrad, but soon found themselves fighting the harsh Russian winter as well as stiffer Soviet resistance, and their advance ground to a halt at Battle of Stalingrad in early 1943.
In the largest amphibious invasion in history, 156,215 Allied troops landed at
Battle of Normandy to retake France from the occupying German forces. Though it was costly in terms of men and materials, the invasion advanced the
Western Front (World War II) and forced Germany to redirect its forces from the Eastern Front (World War II) and
Allied invasion of Italy fronts. In hindsight, the operation is also credited with defining the Western boundary of Soviet
communism; had the Allies not advanced, it is conceivable that the Soviet Union would have controlled more of Europe than it eventually did.
Other examples of historically significant invasions
Assyria#Sargonid .28dynasty.29
Sargon II, during the course of conquering much of what is now known as the Middle East, defeated the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BC and sent its inhabitants into exile. This presaged future Greek and Roman conquest and, later, the Crusades. To this day, the region remains contested.
Battle of Thermopylae
In 480 BC, Xerxes I of Persia moved his armies against the loose confederation of
city-states in what is modern-day Greece. One of the most famous battles of the war, fought at Battle of Thermopylae, is an early example of using a bottleneck to tactical advantage. Although Xerxes' army was vast—modern estimates put it at 250,000—the defending Greeks were able to hold their ground for days by using a narrow mountain pass to slow the Persian advance. The invasion also demonstrates the importance of communication and supply routes; although Xerxes' land battles were almost all Persian victories, the Greeks managed to cut off his naval support and the Persians were forced to withdraw. The invasion served to unify the various city-states, bringing about the formation of the Greek nation.Van De Mieroop, op. cit.
Persian Empire#Hellenistic Persia (330 BC – 150 BC)
In 323 BC,
Alexander the Great led his army into
Persian Empire#The first Persian state: Achaemenid Persia (648 BC – 330 BC), defeating Darius III of Persia, conquering Babylon, and taking control of the Persian Empire. Alexander's influence in mixing cultures led to the
Hellenistic civilization of Mesopotamia and North Africa.Van De Mieroop, op. cit.
Muslim conquests
Following the
Islamic
prophet Muhammad's unification of the Arabian peninsula in 632, his successors, the
Caliphs began a series of invasions of the Middle East, North Africa, Southern Europe, and South Asia. Lasting slightly more than a century, these conquests brought much of the ancient world under Arab rule.
Viking Age
In 793 a Viking raid on
Christian monastery at Lindisfarne in north-east
England caused much consternation throughout the Christian west, and is now often taken as the beginning of the age of Viking raids. Vikings were
Scandinavian warriors,
pirates and traders who raided the coasts of
Great Britain,
Ireland and mainland Europe as far as
Al-Andalus and
Italy from the late 8th–11th century. They also plundered all the coasts of the
Baltic Sea, ascending the rivers of Eastern Europe as far as the
Black Sea and Persia.
Hungarian people#Ethnic affiliations and origins
Magyars were
Finno-Ugric peoples nomads of western Siberia. Around 896, probably under the leadership of Árpád, some Magyars crossed the Carpathian Mountains and entered the
Carpathian Basin. After 900, almost every year Magyars led a raid against the Christian West. In 907, the Magyars defeated
Bavarians near
Bratislava, destroying their army and laying
Great Moravia, Germany,
France and
Italy open to Magyar raids. These raids were fast and devastating. The Magyars deafeated
Louis the Child's Imperial Army near
Augsburg in 910. From 917-925, Magyars raided through Basle,
Alsace,
Burgundy, Saxony, and
Provence. In 937, they raided France as far west as
Reims and Italy as far as Otranto in the south. Magyar expansion was checked at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. Although battle at Lechfeld stopped the Magyar raids against western Europe, the raids on the Byzantine Empire continued until 970.
Norman conquest of England
The 1066 invasion of
England by
William I of England, and the decisive battle which won the war, the
Battle of Hastings, were to have profound effects on the historical and societal development of Britain, and the
English language.
The Crusades
In a series of nine different major invasions from 1095 to 1291, the
Roman Catholic Church and various European states attempted to conquer the
Holy Land for
Christendom from its Muslim rulers, with varied success until the fall of
Acre, Israel in 1291. As Jerusalem changed hands and European forces moved back and forth, in-roads to the
Levant were reestablished and the cultures mixed on a large scale for the first time in centuries.
Genghis Khan#Military campaigns
From 1206 until his death in 1227,
Genghis Khan orchestrated a series of invasions that united much of Asia. Relying heavily on cavalry, the Mongol hordes were able to travel quickly yet were well-supplied. By 1368, the
Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire in history, composed of 35 million km² (13.8 million miles²) of territory stretched across the continent. His eastward invasion of China created the Yuan Dynasty, and his westward invasion of
Kievan Rus' further linked Europe and Asia by reestablishing the Silk Road. Before the
Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in
Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33-53.
Mongol invasion of Europe
The 13th century, when the Mongol Empire came to power, is often called the "Ageof the Mongols".
Mongol armies expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan. Their western conquests included almost all of
Russia (save Novgorod, which became a vassal),
Hungary, and
Poland. Mongolian records indicate that Batu Khan was planning a complete conquest of the remaining European powers, beginning with a winter attack on Austria, Italy and
Germany, when he was recalled to Mongolia upon the death of Great Khan
Ögedei Khan. Most historians believe only his death prevented the complete conquest of Europe.
Timur#Indian Campaign
During the late 14th century, Islamic warlord of Turco-Mongol descent Timur conquered much of
western Asia and
central Asia. In 1398, Timur invaded India on the pretext that the Muslim sultans of Delhi were too much tolerant to their
Hindu subjects. He subjugated
Multan and
Dipalpur in modern day Pakistan and in modern day
India left Delhi in such ruin that it is said for two months "not a bird moved wing in the city".
Siege of Tenochtitlan
The last of the
Aztec empire was destroyed at
Tenochtitlan in 1521, by a combination of Spanish Empire and native forces. Aided by 2,000 local
Tlaxcala (Nahua state)n warriors,
Hernán Cortés marched into the city. Although he and his men were expelled, they returned with ships and laid siege to the capital. Though an epidemic of smallpox took its toll on the Aztecs, Cortes' conquest was the culmination of Spanish strategy in the Americas: He used promises to gain native allies, and he combined superior technology with patience while he struck at Tenochtitlan from the sea. This opened the door to Spanish colonization of mainland
Mesoamerican cultures.
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598)
During the
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598), the Japanese warlord
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, with the ambition of conquering
Ming Dynasty China, invaded Korea with his
daimyō and their troops in 1592 and again in 1597. Japanese prevailed on land but at sea they were defeatedby Korean admiral
Yi Sun-sin.
Qing Dynasty
The fall of the Ming Dynasty was a protracted affair, its roots beginning as early as 1600 with the emergence of the
Manchu under
Nurhaci. Under the brilliant commander, Yuan Chonghuan, the Ming was able to repeatedly fight off the Manchus, notably in 1626 at Ning-yuan and in 1628. On May 26, 1644, Beijing fell to a rebel army led by
Li Zicheng. Seizing their chance, the Manchus crossed the
Great Wall after Ming border general Wu Sangui opened the gates at Shanhai Pass, and quickly overthrew Li's short-lived Shun Dynasty. Despite the loss of Beijing and the death of the emperor, Ming power was by no means destroyed. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing Dynasty until 1662, when the last real hopes of a Ming revival died with the Yongli emperor, Prince of Gui. Complete pacification of China would not be complete until 1683. Overall, an estimated 25 million people died during the
Death toll#Wars. Twentieth Century Atlas - Historical Body Count
List of Ottoman sieges and landings
The Ottoman wars in Europe, also sometimes referred as the Turkish wars, marked an essential part of the history of
southeastern Europe. The Ottoman Empire, leading Islamic state at that time, started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century and was at the centre of interactions between the
Eastern world and Western world worlds for next six centuries.
French invasion of Russia (1812)
In 1812,
Napoleon I of France led his Grande Armée into Russia. At that point, his invasion force of 691,500 men was the largest ever assembled, and for several weeks the Military history of Imperial Russia could do nothing but retreat and try to buy time. The first major battle between the two armies, at the Russian defenses of
Battle of Borodino, was one of the bloodiest single days in human history, with estimates of at least 65,000 dead. But although the Russian retreat allowed the French to capture
Moscow, they were left depleted and without shelter or supplies. Napoleon was forced to withdraw. Although this invasion was not the end of Napoleon, it is credited with fostering a powerful patriotism in Russia that would lead to the strengthening of the nation in the 19th and 20th centuries.
European colonialism and imperialism
In the late 15th century, the
Christendom of
Western Europe began the modern age of
colonialism with the "
Age of Discovery", led by the
Spanish colonization of the Americas and
Portuguese Empire in the Americas and along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East,
India, and
East Asia. The Roman Catholic Church played a role in their overseas activities, and the enormous trade profits and riches from
gold and silver mines allowed them to finance costly
religious wars in Europe. During the 16th and 17th centuries,
British Empire, French colonial empires and Dutch Empire established their own overseas empires in direct competition with each other as well as the earlier
Iberian Peninsula ones, while the land-based Russian Empire expanded across northern and Central Asia. These activities resulted in the invasions of the Indian subcontinent to set up the extensive European colonies in India, as well as the invasion of Africa called the
Scramble for Africa and the colonization of the East Indies. In the late 19th century, the German colonialisms and History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars also joined in, beginning the third wave of invasions that would subdue native peoples and economies, and expand European-controlled territory over the majority of the globe.
Decolonization began in the 19th century and picked up pace only after World War II left the European empires weakened and struggling to subdue the native List of revolutions and rebellions across the vast expanses of their empires. Debates upon the negative vs. positive
impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization—such as those of colonial
Christianization, genocides in history, developing countries' debt,
slavery,
abolitionism, infrastructure and History of medicine#Modern medicine —upon the colonizer and the colonized continue to shape global and national politics to this day.
Eastern Front (World War II)
The Eastern Front of the European Theatre of World War II encompassed the conflict in central Europe and
eastern Europe from June 22, 1941 to May 9, 1945. It was the largest theatre of war in history in terms of numbers of soldiers, equipment and
World War II#Casualties, civilian impact, and atrocities and was notorious for its unprecedented ferocity, destruction, and immense loss of life. The fighting involved millions of
Nazi army and
Red army troops along a broad front hundreds of kilometres long. It was by far the deadliest single theatre of World War II. Scholars now believe that as many as 27 million Soviet citizens died during the war, including some 8.7 million soldiers who fell in battle against
Hitler's armies or died in POW camps. Millions of civilians died from starvation, exposure,
atrocities, and
List of massacres.
See also
References
An
invasion is a
military action consisting of armed forces of one geopolitics entity entering territory (country subdivision) controlled by another such
entity, generally with the objective of either conquering territory, altering the established
government, or a combination thereof. An invasion can be the cause of a war, it can be used as a part of a larger strategy to end a war, or it can constitute an entire war in itself.
The term usually denotes a
military strategy endeavor of substantial magnitude; because the goals of an invasion are usually large-scale and long-term, a sizeable force is needed to hold territory, and protect the interests of the invading entity. Smaller-scale,
military tactics cross-
border actions, such as skirmisher, sorties,
raid (military), infiltrations or
guerrilla warfare, are not generally considered invasions. Because an invasion is, by definition, an attack from outside forces, rebellions, civil wars, coup d'état, and internal acts of
democide or other acts of oppression, are not considered invasions.
History
Archaeology evidence indicates that invasions have been frequent occurrences since
prehistory. In antiquity, before
radio communications and fast transportation, the only way to ensure adequate reinforcements was to move armies as one massive force. This, by its very nature, led to the strategy of invasion. With invasion came
cultural diffusion in government, religion,
philosophy, and
technology that shaped the development of much of the ancient world.
Defenses
. The Great Wall of China near Beijing
States with potentially hostile neighbors typically adopt
defense (military) to delay or forestall an invasion. In addition to utilizing geographical barriers such as
rivers,
marshes, or rugged
terrain, these measures have historically included
fortifications. Such a defense can be intended to actively prevent invading forces from entering the country by means of an extended and well-defended barrier;
Hadrian's Wall, the Great Wall of China and the
Danewerk are famous examples. Such barriers have also included
trench warfare lines and, in more modern times,
minefields,
closed-circuit televisions, and
motion detection sensors. However, these barriers can require a large military force to provide the defense, as well as maintain the equipment and positions, which can impose a great
economics burden on the country. Some of those same techniques can also be turned against defenders, used to keep them from escape or resupply. During
Operation Starvation,
Allies of World War II used airdropped mines to severely disrupt Empire of Japan logistical operations within their own borders.
Alternately, the fortifications can be built up at a series of sites, such as
castles or forts placed near a border. These structures are designed to delay an invasion long enough for the defending nation to mobilize an army of size sufficient for defense or, in some cases, counter-invasion—such as, for example, the Maginot Line. Forts can be positioned so that the garrisons can interdict the
supply lines of the invaders. The theory behind these spaced forts is that the invader cannot afford to bypass these defenses, and so must lay siege to the structures.
; notice the retractable turret in the left foreground.
In modern times, the notion of constructing large-scale static defenses to combat land-based threats has largely become obsolete. The use of precision air campaigns and large-scale mechanized warfare have made lighter, more mobile defenses desirable to military planners. The obsolescence of large fortifications was displayed by the failure of the
Maginot Line in the beginning of World War Two. Nations defending against modern invasions normally use large population centers such as
city or towns as defensive points. The invader must capture these points to destroy the defender's ability to wage war. The defender uses mobile
armoured warfare and
infantry divisions to protect these points, but the defenders are still very mobile and can normally retreat. A prominent example of the use of cities as fortifications can be seen in the
Military of Iraq's stands in the 2003 invasion of Iraq at
Baghdad, Tikrit and
Basra in the major combat in the
Iraq War. A defender can also use these mobile assets to precipitate a counteroffensive like the Soviet Union Red Army at the Battle of Kursk or the Afghan Northern Alliance in Afghanistan.
However, static emplacements remain useful in both defense against naval attacks and anti-aircraft warfare.
Naval mines are still an inexpensive but effective way to defend ports and choke off supply lines. Large static air defense systems that combine antiaircraft guns with
rocket launcher are still the best way to defend against air attacks. Such systems were used effectively by the
North Vietnamese around
Hanoi. Also, the
United States has invested considerable time and money into the construction of a National Missile Defense system, a static defense grid intended to intercept nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles.
Island nations, such as the United Kingdom or Japan, and continental states with extensive
coasts, such as the United States, have utilized a significant navy presence to forestall an invasion of their country, rather than fortifying their border areas. A successful naval defense, however, usually requires a preponderance of naval power and the ability to sustain and service that defense force.
In particularly large nations, the defending force may also withdrawal (military) in order to facilitate a
counterattack by drawing the invaders deeper into hostile territory. One effect of this tactic is that the invading force becomes too spread out, making supply difficult and making the lines more susceptible to attack. This tactic, although costly, helped the Soviets stop the German advance at Battle of Stalingrad. It can also cause the invading force to extend too far, allowing a
pincer movement to cut them off from reinforcements. This was the cause of the British defeat at the Battle of Cowpens during the
American Revolutionary War. Finally, sending too many reinforcements can leave too few defenders in the attackers' territory, allowing a counter-invasion from other areas, as happened in the Second Punic War.
Methods
There are many different methods by which an invasion can take place, each method having arguments both in their favor and against. These include invasion by land, sea, or air, or any combination of these methods.
Invasion by land
Invasion over land is the straightforward entry of
armed forces into an area using existing land connections, usually crossing borders or otherwise defined zones, such as a
demilitarized zone, overwhelming defensive emplacements and structures. Although this tactic often results in a quick victory, troop movements are relatively slow and subject to disruption by terrain and weather. Furthermore, it is hard to conceal plans for this method of invasion, as most geopolitical entities take defensive positions in areas that are most vulnerable to the methods mentioned above.
In modern warfare, invasion by land often takes place after, or sometimes during, attacks on the target by other means. Air strikes and cruise missiles launched from ships at sea are a common method of "softening" the target. Other, more subtle, preparations may involve secretly garnering popular support, assassination potentially threatening political or military figures, and closing off supply lines where they cross into neighboring countries. In some cases, those other means of attack eliminate the need for ground assault; the 1945 atomic-bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ultimately made it unnecessary for the Allies to invade the Japanese home islands with infantry troops. In cases such as this, while some ground troops are still needed to occupy the conquered territory, they are allowed to enter under the terms of a
treaty and as such are no longer invaders. As unmanned, long-range combat evolves, the instances of basic overland invasion become fewer; often the conventional fighting is effectively over before the infantry arrives in the role of peacekeepers (see "
Invasion#Applications in fourth generation warfare" in this article).
Invasion by sea
carrying
LAV 25 ashore during the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Invasion by sea is the use of a body of water to facilitate the entry of armed forces into an area, often a landmass adjoining the body of water or an island. This is generally used either in conjunction with another method of invasion, and especially before the
aviation history, for cases in which there is no other method to enter the territory in question. Arguments in favor of this method usually consist of the ability to perform a surprise attack from sea, or that naval defenses of the area in question are inadequate to repel such an attack. However, the large amount of specialized equipment, such as
amphibious vehicles and the difficulty of establishing defenses—usually with a resulting high
casualty (person)—in exchange for a relatively small gain, are often used as arguments against such an invasion method. Underwater hazards and a lack of good cover are very common problems during invasions from the sea. At the Battle of Tarawa,
United States Marine Corps landing craft became hung up on a
coral reef and were
shell (projectile) from the beach. Other landers were sunk before they could reach the shore, and the tanks they were carrying were stranded in the water. Most of the few survivors of the first wave ended up pinned down on the beach. The island was conquered but at a heavy cost, and the loss of life sparked mass protests from civilians in the United States.
Invasion by air
s descend during
Operation Market GardenInvasion by air is an invention of the 20th century and
modern warfare. The idea involves sending military units into a territory by aircraft. The aircraft either land, allowing the military units to debark and attempt their objective, or the troops exit the aircraft while still in the air, using parachutes or similar devices to land in the territory being invaded. Many times air assaults have been used to pave the way for a ground- or sea-based invasion, by taking key positions deep behind enemy lines such as bridges and crossroads, but an entirely air-based invasion has never succeeded. Two immediate problems are resupply and reinforcement. A large airborne force cannot be adequately supplied without meeting up with ground forces; an airborne force too small simply places themselves into an immediate envelopment situation. Arguments in favor of this method generally relate to the ability to target specific areas that may not necessarily be easily accessible by land or sea, a greater chance of surprising the enemy and overwhelming defensive structures, and, in many cases, the need for a reduced number of forces due to the element of surprise. Arguments against this method typically involve capacity to perform such an invasion—such as the sheer number of planes that would be needed to carry a sufficient number of troops—and the need for a high level of espionage in order for the invasion to be successful.
The closest examples to a true air invasion are the Battle of Crete, Chindits#Operation Thursday (the
Chindits second operation during the
Burma Campaign) and
Operation Market Garden. The latter was an assault on the German-occupied Netherlands conducted in September of 1944. Nearly 35,000 men were dropped by parachute and glider into enemy territory in an attempt to capture bridges from the Germans and make way for the Allies' advance. However, even with such a massive force taking the Germans completely by surprise, the assault was a tactical failure and after 9 days of fighting the Allies managed only to escape back to their own lines, having sustained over 18,000 casualties. In the 21st century, as vast improvements are made in anti-aircraft defenses, it seems that the air invasion is a strategy whose time may never come.
Pacification
Once political boundaries and military lines have been breached, peace of the region is the final, and arguably the most important, goal of the invading force. After the defeat of the regular military, or when one is lacking, continued opposition to an invasion often comes from civilian or paramilitary resistance movements. Complete pacification of an occupied country can be difficult, and usually impossible, but popular support is vital to the success of any invasion.
Media
propaganda such as leaflets, books, and radio broadcasts can be used to encourage resistance fighters to surrender and to dissuade others from joining their cause. Pacification, often referred to as "the winning of hearts and minds", reduces the desire for civilians to take up resistance. This may be accomplished through
brainwashing, allowing conquered citizens to participate in their government, or, especially in impoverished or besieged areas, simply by providing food, water, and shelter. Sometimes displays of military might are used; invading forces may assemble and parade through the streets of conquered towns, attempting to demonstrate the futility of any further fighting. These displays may also include public capital punishment of enemy soldiers, resistance fighters, and other conspirators. Particularly in antiquity, the death or imprisonment of a popular leader was sometimes enough to bring about a quick surrender. However, this has often had the unintended effect of creating martyrs around which popular resistance can rally. An example of which was Sir
William Wallace, who, centuries after his execution by the English, is still a symbol of
Scotland nationalism.
Many factors need to be taken into account when deciding which tactics to use during occupation; when the wrong decisions are made, it can lead to years (or even centuries) of continued resistance. The problems caused by continued resistance may be minimal if the conquered territory is only needed for a short-term tactical purpose, but can become extremely difficult if the intent is to
colonisation the area or hold the land indefinitely.
Support
Logistics
Without a steady flow of supplies, an invading force will soon find itself retreating. Before his invasion of Ancient Greece,
Xerxes I of Persia spent three years amassing supplies from all over Asia;
Herodotus wrote that the Persian Empire army was so large it "drank the rivers dry".
In most invasions, even in modern times, many fresh supplies are gathered from the invaded territories themselves. Before the
laws of war, invaders often relied heavily on the supplies they would win by conquering towns along the way. During the
Second Punic War, for example,
Hannibal Barca diverted his army to conquer cities simply to gather supplies; his strategy in crossing the Alps necessitated traveling with as few provisions as possible, expecting the
Roman Republic stores to sustain them when they had breached the border. The scorched earth tactics used in Russia forced Napoleon I of France to withdraw his forces due to lack of food and shelter. Today, the
Law of land warfare forbids
looting and the confiscation of private property, but local supplies, particularly perishables, are still purchased when possible for use by occupying forces, and airplanes often use parachutes to drop supplies to besieged forces. Even as rules become stricter, the necessities of war become more numerous; in addition to food, shelter, and ammunition, today's militaries require fuel, batteries, spare mechanical parts, electronic equipment, and many other things. In the United States, the Defense Logistics Agency employs over 22,000 civilians with the sole task of logistics support, and 30,000 soldiers graduate from the U.S. Army Logistics Management College each year.
Communication
Another consideration is the importance of leadership being able to communicate with the invasion force. In ancient times, this often meant that a king needed to lead his armies in person to be certain his commands were followed, as in the case of
Alexander the Great. At that time, the skills needed to lead troops in battle were as important as the skills needed to run a country during peacetime. When it was necessary for the king to be elsewhere, messengers would relay updates back to the rear, often on horseback or, in cases such as the
Battle of Marathon, with swift runners.
When possible,
sloops and Cutter (ship)s were used to relay information by sea. The HMS Pickle brought Britain the first news that
Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson had defeated the French forces at the Battle of Trafalgar.
The development of
Morse Code, and later voice communications by radio and satellite, have allowed even small units of skirmishers to remain in contact with the larger invasion force, to verify orders or call for artillery support and air strikes. These communications were critical to the German blitzkrieg strategy, as infantry commanders relayed defensive positions to tanks and bombers.
Applications regarding non-state combatants
In the 20th and 21st centuries, questions arose regarding the effectiveness of the invasion strategy in neutralizing non-state combatants, a type of warfare sometimes referred to as "fourth generation warfare". In this case, one or more combatant groups are controlled not by a centralized state government but by independent leadership, and these groups may be made up of civilians, foreign agents,
mercenary, politicians, religious leaders, and members of the regular military. These groups act in smaller numbers, are not confined by borders, and do not necessarily depend on the direct support of the state. Groups such as these are not easily defeated by straightforward invasion, or even constant occupation; the country's regular army may be defeated, the government may be replaced, but
asymmetric warfare on the part of these groups can be continued indefinitely. Because regular armed forces units do not have the flexibility and independence of small covert cells, many believe that the concept of a powerful occupying force actually creates a disadvantage.
An opposing theory holds that, in response to extremist ideology and unjust governments, an invasion can change the government and reeducate the people, making prolonged resistance unlikely and averting future violence. This theory acknowledges that these changes may take time—generations, in some cases—but holds that immediate benefits may still be won by reducing membership in, and choking the supply lines of, these covert cells. Proponents of the invasion strategy in such conflicts maintain the belief that a strong occupying force can still succeed in its goals on a tactical level, building upon numerous small victories, similar to a war of attrition.
Contemporary debate on this issue is still fresh; neither side can claim to know for certain which strategies will ultimately be effective in defeating non-state combatants. Opponents of the invasion strategy point to a lack of examples in which occupying or
peacekeeping forces have met with conclusive success.Lind, William S., op. cit. They also cite continuing conflicts such as The Troubles, Al-Aqsa Intifada, Second Chechen War, and Casualties of the conflict in Iraq since 2003, as well as examples which they claim ultimately proved to be failures, such as Multinational Force in Lebanon, and Soviet war in Afghanistan. Supporters of the invasion strategy hold that it is too soon to call those situations failures, and that patience is needed to see the plan through. Some say that the invasions themselves have, in fact, been successful, but that political opponents and the international media skew the facts for sensationalism or political gain.
Outcomes
The outcomes of an invasion may vary according to the objectives of both invaders and defenders, the success of the invasion and the defense, and the presence or absence of an agreed settlement between the warring parties. The most common outcome is the loss of territory, generally accompanied by a change in government and often the loss of direct control of that government by the losing faction. This sometimes results in the transformation of that country into a client state, often accompanied by requirements to pay war reparations or tribute to the victor. In other cases the results of a successful invasion may simply be a return to the status quo; this can be seen in attrition warfare, when the destruction of personnel and supplies is the main strategic objective, or where a nation previously subdued and currently occupied by an aggressive third party is restored to control of its own affairs (i.e. Western Europe following the Normandy landings in 1944, or Kuwait following the defeat of Iraq in 1991). In some cases, the invasion may be strategically limited to a geographical area, which is carved into a separate state as with the
Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
Record-setting invasions
Many records for invasions were set during
World War II, at the peak of
second generation warfare and third generation warfare. The vast numbers of the armies involved combined with innovative tactics and technology lent themselves to invasions on a scale that had not been seen before.
The largest land invasion in history was 1941's
Operation Barbarossa, in which 4,000,000
Nazi Germany troops
blitzkrieged into the Soviet Union. Initially the Germans advanced with great ease and nearly captured
Battle of Moscow, also laying siege to
Battle of Leningrad, but soon found themselves fighting the harsh Russian winter as well as stiffer Soviet resistance, and their advance ground to a halt at
Battle of Stalingrad in early 1943.
In the largest amphibious invasion in history, 156,215 Allied troops landed at
Battle of Normandy to retake France from the occupying German forces. Though it was costly in terms of men and materials, the invasion advanced the Western Front (World War II) and forced Germany to redirect its forces from the
Eastern Front (World War II) and Allied invasion of Italy fronts. In hindsight, the operation is also credited with defining the Western boundary of Soviet
communism; had the Allies not advanced, it is conceivable that the Soviet Union would have controlled more of Europe than it eventually did.
Other examples of historically significant invasions
Assyria#Sargonid .28dynasty.29
Sargon II, during the course of conquering much of what is now known as the Middle East, defeated the
Kingdom of Israel in 722 BC and sent its inhabitants into exile. This presaged future Greek and Roman conquest and, later, the Crusades. To this day, the region remains contested.
Battle of Thermopylae
In 480 BC, Xerxes I of Persia moved his armies against the loose confederation of city-states in what is modern-day Greece. One of the most famous battles of the war, fought at
Battle of Thermopylae, is an early example of using a
bottleneck to tactical advantage. Although Xerxes' army was vast—modern estimates put it at 250,000—the defending Greeks were able to hold their ground for days by using a narrow mountain pass to slow the Persian advance. The invasion also demonstrates the importance of communication and supply routes; although Xerxes' land battles were almost all Persian victories, the Greeks managed to cut off his naval support and the Persians were forced to withdraw. The invasion served to unify the various city-states, bringing about the formation of the Greek nation.Van De Mieroop, op. cit.
Persian Empire#Hellenistic Persia (330 BC – 150 BC)
In 323 BC,
Alexander the Great led his army into Persian Empire#The first Persian state: Achaemenid Persia (648 BC – 330 BC), defeating
Darius III of Persia, conquering
Babylon, and taking control of the Persian Empire. Alexander's influence in mixing cultures led to the
Hellenistic civilization of Mesopotamia and North Africa.Van De Mieroop, op. cit.
Muslim conquests
Following the
Islamic prophet
Muhammad's unification of the Arabian peninsula in 632, his successors, the
Caliphs began a series of invasions of the Middle East, North Africa, Southern Europe, and South Asia. Lasting slightly more than a century, these conquests brought much of the ancient world under Arab rule.
Viking Age
In 793 a Viking raid on Christian monastery at Lindisfarne in north-east
England caused much consternation throughout the Christian west, and is now often taken as the beginning of the age of Viking raids. Vikings were Scandinavian
warriors, pirates and traders who raided the coasts of
Great Britain, Ireland and mainland Europe as far as
Al-Andalus and
Italy from the late 8th–11th century. They also plundered all the coasts of the Baltic Sea, ascending the rivers of Eastern Europe as far as the
Black Sea and Persia.
Hungarian people#Ethnic affiliations and origins
Magyars were
Finno-Ugric peoples nomads of western Siberia. Around 896, probably under the leadership of
Árpád, some Magyars crossed the
Carpathian Mountains and entered the Carpathian Basin. After 900, almost every year Magyars led a raid against the Christian West. In 907, the Magyars defeated
Bavarians near Bratislava, destroying their army and laying
Great Moravia, Germany, France and Italy open to Magyar raids. These raids were fast and devastating. The Magyars deafeated
Louis the Child's Imperial Army near Augsburg in 910. From 917-925, Magyars raided through
Basle, Alsace, Burgundy, Saxony, and Provence. In 937, they raided France as far west as
Reims and Italy as far as Otranto in the south. Magyar expansion was checked at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. Although battle at Lechfeld stopped the Magyar raids against western Europe, the raids on the
Byzantine Empire continued until 970.
Norman conquest of England
The 1066 invasion of
England by
William I of England, and the decisive battle which won the war, the Battle of Hastings, were to have profound effects on the historical and societal development of Britain, and the English language.
The Crusades
In a series of nine different major invasions from 1095 to 1291, the
Roman Catholic Church and various European states attempted to conquer the Holy Land for Christendom from its
Muslim rulers, with varied success until the fall of
Acre, Israel in 1291. As
Jerusalem changed hands and European forces moved back and forth, in-roads to the Levant were reestablished and the cultures mixed on a large scale for the first time in centuries.
Genghis Khan#Military campaigns
From 1206 until his death in 1227,
Genghis Khan orchestrated a series of invasions that united much of Asia. Relying heavily on cavalry, the Mongol hordes were able to travel quickly yet were well-supplied. By 1368, the Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire in history, composed of 35 million km² (13.8 million miles²) of territory stretched across the continent. His eastward invasion of China created the
Yuan Dynasty, and his westward invasion of
Kievan Rus' further linked Europe and Asia by reestablishing the Silk Road. Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in
Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33-53.
Mongol invasion of Europe
The 13th century, when the Mongol Empire came to power, is often called the "Ageof the Mongols".
Mongol armies expanded westward under the command of
Batu Khan. Their western conquests included almost all of Russia (save
Novgorod, which became a vassal), Hungary, and Poland. Mongolian records indicate that Batu Khan was planning a complete conquest of the remaining European powers, beginning with a winter attack on
Austria,
Italy and
Germany, when he was recalled to
Mongolia upon the death of Great Khan
Ögedei Khan. Most historians believe only his death prevented the complete conquest of Europe.
Timur#Indian Campaign
During the late 14th century, Islamic warlord of
Turco-Mongol descent
Timur conquered much of western Asia and central Asia. In 1398, Timur invaded India on the pretext that the Muslim sultans of Delhi were too much tolerant to their
Hindu subjects. He subjugated
Multan and Dipalpur in modern day
Pakistan and in modern day India left
Delhi in such ruin that it is said for two months "not a bird moved wing in the city".
Siege of Tenochtitlan
The last of the Aztec empire was destroyed at
Tenochtitlan in 1521, by a combination of
Spanish Empire and native forces. Aided by 2,000 local Tlaxcala (Nahua state)n warriors, Hernán Cortés marched into the city. Although he and his men were expelled, they returned with ships and laid siege to the capital. Though an epidemic of
smallpox took its toll on the Aztecs, Cortes' conquest was the culmination of Spanish strategy in the Americas: He used promises to gain native allies, and he combined superior technology with patience while he struck at Tenochtitlan from the sea. This opened the door to Spanish colonization of mainland Mesoamerican cultures.
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598)
During the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598), the Japanese warlord
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, with the ambition of conquering
Ming Dynasty China, invaded Korea with his daimyō and their troops in 1592 and again in 1597. Japanese prevailed on land but at sea they were defeatedby Korean admiral Yi Sun-sin.
Qing Dynasty
The fall of the
Ming Dynasty was a protracted affair, its roots beginning as early as 1600 with the emergence of the Manchu under Nurhaci. Under the brilliant commander, Yuan Chonghuan, the Ming was able to repeatedly fight off the Manchus, notably in 1626 at Ning-yuan and in 1628. On May 26, 1644, Beijing fell to a rebel army led by
Li Zicheng. Seizing their chance, the Manchus crossed the Great Wall after Ming border general Wu Sangui opened the gates at
Shanhai Pass, and quickly overthrew Li's short-lived
Shun Dynasty. Despite the loss of
Beijing and the death of the emperor, Ming power was by no means destroyed. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing Dynasty until 1662, when the last real hopes of a Ming revival died with the Yongli emperor,
Prince of Gui. Complete pacification of China would not be complete until 1683. Overall, an estimated 25 million people died during the Death toll#Wars. Twentieth Century Atlas - Historical Body Count
List of Ottoman sieges and landings
The Ottoman wars in Europe, also sometimes referred as the Turkish wars, marked an essential part of the history of southeastern Europe. The Ottoman Empire, leading
Islamic state at that time, started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century and was at the centre of interactions between the Eastern world and
Western world worlds for next six centuries.
French invasion of Russia (1812)
In 1812, Napoleon I of France led his
Grande Armée into Russia. At that point, his invasion force of 691,500 men was the largest ever assembled, and for several weeks the Military history of Imperial Russia could do nothing but retreat and try to buy time. The first major battle between the two armies, at the Russian defenses of
Battle of Borodino, was one of the bloodiest single days in human history, with estimates of at least 65,000 dead. But although the Russian retreat allowed the French to capture Moscow, they were left depleted and without shelter or supplies. Napoleon was forced to withdraw. Although this invasion was not the end of Napoleon, it is credited with fostering a powerful patriotism in Russia that would lead to the strengthening of the nation in the 19th and 20th centuries.
European colonialism and imperialism
In the late 15th century, the
Christendom of Western Europe began the modern age of colonialism with the "
Age of Discovery", led by the Spanish colonization of the Americas and Portuguese Empire in the Americas and along the coasts of Africa, the
Middle East, India, and East Asia. The
Roman Catholic Church played a role in their overseas activities, and the enormous trade profits and riches from
gold and silver mines allowed them to finance costly
religious wars in Europe. During the 16th and 17th centuries, British Empire,
French colonial empires and Dutch Empire established their own overseas empires in direct competition with each other as well as the earlier Iberian Peninsula ones, while the land-based Russian Empire expanded across northern and Central Asia. These activities resulted in the invasions of the Indian subcontinent to set up the extensive
European colonies in India, as well as the invasion of Africa called the Scramble for Africa and the colonization of the East Indies. In the late 19th century, the German colonialisms and
History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars also joined in, beginning the third wave of invasions that would subdue native peoples and economies, and expand European-controlled territory over the majority of the globe.
Decolonization began in the 19th century and picked up pace only after
World War II left the European empires weakened and struggling to subdue the native
List of revolutions and rebellions across the vast expanses of their empires. Debates upon the negative vs. positive
impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization—such as those of colonial
Christianization, genocides in history, developing countries' debt, slavery,
abolitionism, infrastructure and
History of medicine#Modern medicine —upon the colonizer and the colonized continue to shape global and national politics to this day.
Eastern Front (World War II)
The Eastern Front of the
European Theatre of World War II encompassed the conflict in
central Europe and eastern Europe from June 22, 1941 to May 9, 1945. It was the largest theatre of war in history in terms of numbers of soldiers, equipment and
World War II#Casualties, civilian impact, and atrocities and was notorious for its unprecedented ferocity, destruction, and immense loss of life. The fighting involved millions of
Nazi army and Red army troops along a broad front hundreds of kilometres long. It was by far the deadliest single theatre of
World War II. Scholars now believe that as many as 27 million Soviet citizens died during the war, including some 8.7 million soldiers who fell in battle against
Hitler's armies or died in POW camps. Millions of civilians died from
starvation, exposure, atrocities, and List of massacres.
See also
References
Invasion
Channel 4's hit US drama about the Invasion of a small US town ... For centuries, humans have searched the skies for signs of intelligent life... to no avail.
BBC - Romans - Invasion
KS2 history - Information on the Roman invasion of Britain, with activities and a quiz. ... Before the Romans invaded, the Celts ruled Britain. The Celts were divided up into ...
Pitch Invasion - 5-A-SIDE FOOTBALL LEAGUES
Organisers of fast-moving 5-a-side football leagues and events across the UK.
BBC - Vikings - Viking Invasion page 2
The Vikings in Britain In the year 793 Viking pirate raiders sailed across the North Sea to a Christian monastery at Lindisfarne in north-east England.
Invasion - Exhibition of sci-fi movie props and costumes
Featuring exhibits from ALIEN ®, PREDATOR ®, STAR WARS ®, X-FILES ®, ROBOCOP ®, DR WHO ®, MARS ATTACKS ® and many more
Birchlabs.co.uk: Invasion
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Invasion (TV series) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Invasion is an American science fiction television series that aired on ABC for only one season beginning in September 2005 before it was cancelled.
Invasion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An invasion is a military action consisting of armed forces of one geopolitical entity entering territory controlled by another such entity, generally with the objective of either ...
Viking Invasion - Home
Everywhere the Christians are victims of massacres, burnings and plunderings. The Vikings conquer all in their path, and no one resists them.
The British Invasion Squadron - Headquarters
Based around a group of friends from Motley Fool message board after it went subscription only, with an ID parade, a selection of quizzes and caption competitions.
